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For example best antibiotic for sinus infection cephalexin goutichine 0.5 mg with mastercard, most people have a friend or acquaintance who knows "everything" about cars infection from pedicure safe 0.5 mg goutichine, computers virus 12 states buy genuine goutichine line, stereos antimicrobial kerlix purchase 0.5 mg goutichine with visa, food, stocks, or other common consumer goods, and one characteristic of such "consumer mavens" is that they are able to maintain the self-presentation of expertise. Consumer research has not extensively investigated the role of these consumer experts, except in thinking about them as early adopters in Bass and other diff usion frameworks. Finally, the role of task characteristics are often overlooked in the study of expertise. Many have argued that characteristics of the task are critical in determining whether there will be any bona fide experts in the domain. A common observation is that in some domains experts achieve at very high levels, but in other domains, performance is not significantly different from novices (Brehmer & Brehmer, 1988; Carroll, 1987; Chi et al. In general, task characteristics that predict good performance include repetitive tasks that are based on static, agreed-upon stimuli with timely, veridical, feedback available, and a stationary underlying model, in which the unmodelable error in the environment is low. Task characteristics that suggest poor performance with little evidence of objective expertise include dynamic stimuli, domains stimuli with little agreement about which are important, nonstationary underlying processes, cases where feedback is either unavailable, nonveridical, delayed, or ambiguous. The list above is nonexhaustive, but it should give a flavor of what types of tasks are likely to result in high levels of observed human performance-tasks such as weather forecasting, solving physics, math, or programming problems, some areas of medical diagnosis, and related fields are likely to result in high levels of performance. Other tasks, such as predicting recidivism rates among potential parolees, admissions officers, etc. Applying the Theory of Expert Competence to consumer domains, we see that we should expect the development of expertise across a wide variety of consumer tasks. Under such circumstances, we would expect that consumer expertise would develop, with some consumers able to accurately value objects within their domain of expertise. Similarly, experienced shoppers are likely to develop a reasonable sense of where to go for the cheapest product, if it is commonly purchased (though store choice is not usually determined by a single good). For example, people infrequently negotiate over automobiles, little feedback is available to the consumer after the deal, and the relevant attributes change over time. Therefore, we would expect very little expertise to develop among ordinary consumers in this market. Human capital is defined as scarce knowledge, skills, or techniques that are acquired through investments in formal education, training, or experiential learning. Much of the important work in this area has been done by Gary Becker (for a comprehensive review, see Becker, 1993). The majority of the work in human capital has focused on those investments that would provide returns in the labor market. However, in marketing, Ratchford (2001) extended the original Stigler and Becker (1977) human capital model by adopting the original household production model and by further viewing the household as a producer of goods and services that it sells to itself. The Ratchford theory of consumer human capital begins with the assumption that each household or consumer can be viewed as a small business that produces a positive, real-valued vector of activities, Z. Each activity, Zi, is produced by using a combination of goods, X, time, Ti, and knowledge K, which represents the types of knowledge capital needed to produce Zi. Experience is assumed to lead to at least some relevant knowledge consistent with H1, learning from experince. With appropriate constraints and assumptions on functional forms, consumers are assumed to maximize utility subject to constraints on time, income, and production functions for each activity. The fundamental insight is that knowledge changes the relative cost of producing goods, because for example, an expert chef will find the cost to produce a meal relatively cheaper than a novice. Furthermore, it is assumed (in keeping with the perfect world framework) that consumption events provide experience that automatically increases knowledge capital. It should be noted that increases in human capital will result in an increase in consumption of a given activity, but may result in either an increase or a decrease for the input goods and time required. The increase in the consumption of the activity follows from the fact that human capital decreases the true, or total, cost to produce it. Although consumption for the activity will increase, consumption of the component goods and time required to produce the activity may decrease because human capital may cut the amount of goods and time required per unit of the activity, essentially increasing efficiency (Ratchford, 2001). This is analogous to the standard economic analysis of income and substitution effects, and the net result will depend on the particulars of a given situation.
Broniarczyk and Alba (1994) found that even when an extension is in a dissimilar product category infection x private server buy goutichine with mastercard, it can be viewed as acceptable if the attributes of the brand category are relevant to the new extension bacteria 100x purchase 0.5mg goutichine mastercard. The Ralph Lauren brand image antibiotics that start with z buy on line goutichine, for example antibiotics for acne make me feel sick purchase generic goutichine from india, has transferred successfully to product categories that are low in physical similarity to its core product base of apparel. Martin and Stewart (2001) found that when an extension is moderately incongruent with the goals of the parent brand category, the attitudes toward the category have less impact on attitudes toward the brand extension (and purchase intent) than when the extension is congruent with the goals of the parent brand category. When the extension was extremely goal-incongruent, the attitudes toward the parent brand category had no impact on attitude toward the extension (or purchase intent). Finally, Martin and Stewart (2001) found that when both product category similarity and brand attribute similarity reflected a common goal, they both predicted extension acceptance. If the consumer had multiple goals that were incongruent with one another, then other factors, such as a similarity heuristic, predicted extension acceptance (Martin & Stewart, 2001). Similarity as a Heuristic Using categorical information often simplifies judgment and decision-making, because consumers produce useful inferences by comparing current information about a perceived product to relevant category information. Similarity between a parent brand and an extension has also been viewed as a heuristic used in making extension-related judgments under certain conditions. In contrast, when resources, ability, and/or motivation are abundant, people are more likely to elaborate more on the details of the new category member and its idiosyncrasies. Analytic processing was operationalized as those categorization decisions that were based exclusively on features diagnostic of category membership. Nonanalytic or "holistic" classification was operationalized as those involving membership decisions based on overall brand similarity. Hutchinson and Alba (1991) found that perceptual salience of attributes enhanced analytic learning if the attributes were criterial but inhibited learning if they were not. Research further suggests that similarity is used as a heuristic when similarity information is accessible and when more relevant information is unavailable. For example, when the relationship between the category and the new category member is made accessible through repeated exposure, increased elaboration, or instructions to elaborate on relations between them, similarity will be more likely to be used as a heuristic (and when other information is not accessible). As noted earlier, similarity was used when product category information about the parent brand (Meyvis & Janiszewski, 2004), or product category information about the brand extension (Klink & Smith, 2001), was the only information available or accessible to the consumer. When individuating information about the brand extension was available, the individuating information, rather than a similarity heuristic, was used (Klink & Smith, 2001). Alignability of Attributes Another type of similarity-based comparison, generally studied outside the domain of brand categories, involves the alignability of attributes between the new category stimulus and the existing category representation in memory (Gentner & Markman, 1997; in the consumer literature, Gregan-Paxton, 2001; Moreau, Lehmann, & Markman, 2001; Roehm & Sternthal, 2001). Alignable differences focus on the structural properties of attributes and the degree to which attributes from one object can be "mapped onto" another object. Research finds that alignable differences (versus differences that are not alignable) are more accessible from memory (Zhang & Markman, 1998), are perceived as more useful inputs in judgments (Markman & Medin, 1995; Zhang & Fitzsimons, 1999), and increase brand evaluations in comparative advertising (Zhang, Kardes, & Cronley, 2002). When two different brands were paired in a comparative advertising setting, the more the attributes of the target brand could be mapped onto (or compared with) those of the comparison brand, the higher the target brand evaluations (Zhang, Kardes, & Cronley, 2002). When two brands were not alignable, the brands were more difficult to compare, and transfer of affect was less likely to occur. Assimilation and Contrast in Consumer Contexts the research on similarity-based inferences finds that the lower the similarity between the new category and an existing category, the lower the likelihood of category-based inferences. They suggest that if, at encoding, the domains or categories for the context and target match (or are at least similar), assimilation will likely occur, and there will be a positive transfer of beliefs between the two. These theories suggest that the assimilation of information to a target results under conditions in which the information is included in a temporary representation of the target, whereas contrast effects result from exclusion of the information from the representation, and the use of the target as a standard of comparison from which to judge the information (Schwarz & Bless, 1992). When the similarity between the new instance and the existing category are high, an assimilation effect occurs, such that beliefs and affect are more likely to transfer to the new instance. But conditions that produce contrast effects show how the theories are different from theory and research discussed earlier that predict category-based inferences. Seemingly, category information should be viewed as irrelevant for judgments about a new category member that is extremely atypical, or when people are skeptical that an atypical instance is a category member. For example, a consumer may simply discount the Ralph Lauren toaster oven as an anomaly.
One way to prevent such shift in preferences is to engage consumers who consider a distant future purchase in process-oriented mental simulation and thus increase feasibility-related considerations infection buy goutichine from india. As a result antibiotic plants purchase generic goutichine online, consumers will be more consistent in their preferences at the time of making the initial decision and the time of purchase (Zhao bacteria exponential growth buy goutichine in india, Hoeffler virus 68 in children cheap goutichine on line, & Zauberman, 2007). Research using measures of imagery abilities has demonstrated the impact of dispositional imagery vividness on a variety of psychological processes; these include hypnotizability (Crawford, 1982), creativity (Shaw & Belmore, 1982), and information processing (Hiscock, 1976; Marks, 1973; Pham, Meyvis, & Zhou, 2001; Swann & Miller, 1982). For example, individuals high in dispositional imagery vividness were better able to memorize a sentence when they were instructed to create a mental image of the situation in the sentence rather than repeat the sentence to themselves. For low imagers, however, both strategies were equally effective in memorizing the target sentences (Slee, 1978). These two variables, in turn, had a significant impact on the attitudes toward the advertised brand. Consistent with the imagery accessibility account, imagery appeals enhanced attitudes and purchase intentions for high imagers, whereas among low imagers, difficulties in creating the suggested mental image decreased subsequent product evaluations (Petrova & Cialdini, 2005). Because imagery involves processing information by generating an internal sensory representation of the perceived information, individuals who tend to focus on their internal representations and experiences are likely to be influenced by imagery processes to a greater extent. The tendency of individuals to pay attention to their internal experiences has been well documented as a stable dispositional variable (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975). However, more research is needed to examine the relationship between the effects of imagery and internal focus and to investigate other variables that can influence self-focused attention and consequently the effects of imagery appeals. For example, manipulations of internal focus through the use of a mirror have demonstrated effects similar to the effects of private self-consciousness (Carver & Scheier, 1978). On the other hand, it has also been suggested that chronic differences in internal focus and situational manipulations may have different effects (Hull, Slone, Meteyer, & Matthews, 2002). Thus, future research needs to examine the possible differential effects of dispositional and situationally manipulated internal focus in regard to imagery. Future research may also examine novel variables that may influence internal focus and consequently moderate the effects of imagery. Albert Einstein We reviewed evidence for a strategy of influencing consumers that, rather than providing logical arguments, draws consumers into an imagined reality that includes the product. Although imagery has long been recognized and used as a strategy of influence, consumer researchers have only recently started to systematically investigate the psychological mechanisms underlying its effects. Moreover, it suggests processes that are conceptually different from the psychological mechanisms traditionally studied by influence and persuasion researchers. Yet, more research is needed to uncover the processes through which imagery influences consumers and the conditions under which such effects occur. In the following sections we examine some possibilities for research in these directions. We reviewed several processes that are suggested to underlie the effects of imagery. As proposed by the availability-valence hypothesis (Kissielius & Sternthal, 1984), when asked to imagine their experience with the product, consumers are more likely to elaborate on the product information as well as to bring to mind relevant positive or negative product information. Depending on the favorability of the information made accessible, imagery can increase or decrease product evaluations. The availability-valence hypothesis is consistent with many theories of consumer judgment according to which consumers make judgments by examining the implications of each piece of product information that they have available. For example, the transportation account suggests that when consumers imagine their experience with the product, they process the information holistically. Consequently, they are less likely to be influenced by the favorability of the presented information (Adaval & Wyer, 1998) and the strength of the presented arguments (Escalas, 2004). The imagery accessibility account (Petrova & Cialdini, 2005) further suggests that imagery creates a readily available mental image of the consumption experience. Instead of examining the favorability of the product information, consumers may base their decisions on the ease with which a mental image of having the product comes to mind. And finally, there might be more direct effects of mental images through an automatic link between perception and behavior. Future research should also examine how these processes interact and what are the direct outcomes that each of the processes is likely to influence. For example, the emotional response to the message and the valence of the accessible information may directly influence brand attitudes (Bone & Ellen, 1992). On the other hand, if the effects of imagery are mediated by (a) the increased accessibility of the consumption images or (b) a direct automatic link between imagination and behavior, then imagery should have a more direct effect on purchase intentions (Gregory et al. Some evidence for such independent effects of imagery on behavioral intentions comes from research by Schlosser (2003), in which participants viewed a Web site that had either passive or interactive information about Kodak cameras.
Consumer intention to purchase apparel by mail order: Beliefs virus 64 discount goutichine 0.5mg otc, attitude antimicrobial cleaning products generic goutichine 0.5 mg with mastercard, and decision process variables bacteria large intestine best purchase for goutichine. Expectancy-value models of health behavior: the role of salience and anticipated regret antibiotics for pet birds purchase goutichine 0.5mg amex. Increasing attitude-behavior correspondence by broadening the scope of the behavioral measure. A conceptual overview of the self-presentational concerns and response tendencies of focus group participants. Effects of loyalty programs on value perception, program loyalty, and brand loyalty. On the practical significance of hindsight bias: the case of the expectancy-disconfirmation model of consumer satisfaction. Campbell University of Colorado at Boulder Amna Kirmani University of Maryland A consumer is shopping for a suit for an upcoming job interview. A shopper on a Web site sees that the default option on the computer system she is putting together is the most expensive option. The answers to these questions depend on the extent to which consumers activate and use their persuasion knowledge, i. Wright argued that consumer researchers were more focused on the persuasion agent than the persuasion target, and that our role as consumer researchers suggested that we should focus on the consumer, i. On the other side, persuasion agents also have topic, target, and persuasion knowledge that interact to influence Figure 21. In this chapter we provide an overview of the status of current research related to persuasion knowledge and the Persuasion Knowledge Model. Thus, the focus of this chapter is on persuasion-knowledge-related research generated since the publication of the Persuasion Knowledge Model. The research on persuasion knowledge spans a variety of contexts, including advertising, sponsorship, interpersonal persuasion, cause-related marketing, retailing and decision-making. Therefore, in the final section of the chapter, we offer some prescriptions for future research. This is followed by a discussion of the content of persuasion knowledge, antecedents to the use of persuasion knowledge, consequences of persuasion knowledge, and target-agent interplay. We conclude by presenting research that addresses issues of measurement of persuasion knowledge. Thus, persuasion knowledge includes implicit theories about the persuasion context, as well as causal inferences drawn about motives (Kardes et al. After discussing agent and topic knowledge, we describe the content of persuasion knowledge in more detail in the next section. Agent knowledge includes beliefs about the "traits, competencies, and goals of the persuasion agent" (Friestad & Wright, 1994, p. Agent knowledge can include general knowledge or schemas about marketing agents, such as salespeople, companies, or brands. Agent knowledge could also include knowledge about a specific salesperson, company, or brand. For instance, a consumer who sees the same salesperson every time he visits Nordstrom is likely to have specific agent knowledge. For example, the literature on source effects gives insight into some ways that agent knowledge affects consumer behavior. Likewise, research on brand or company familiarity can be applied to agent knowledge (Campbell & Keller, 2003). Thus, product or issue expertise would be part of topic knowledge, with experts displaying higher topic knowledge than novices. For example, when the consumer above visits Nordstrom, he is likely to have some knowledge about the product under consideration. If shopping for home accessories, he may have some knowledge about bedding, such as that higher thread counts indicate higher quality sheets. However, much of this work looks at the role of expertise for product acceptance. Thus, there is an opportunity for research that examines the role that topic knowledge plays directly within persuasion episodes. Similarly, does the consumer who knows a good deal about how promotions work have high persuasion knowledge or topic knowledge The first is that rather than trying to create artificial distinctions between these three types of knowledge, the knowledge structures be viewed as partially overlapping.
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