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Decomposition: the ecological process carried out primarily by microbes that leads to a transformation of dead organic matter into inorganic mater; the converse of biological production anxiety symptoms edu discount emsam generic. For example anxiety symptoms hot flashes order 5mg emsam free shipping, the transformation of dead plant material anxiety wrap for dogs generic 5mg emsam overnight delivery, such as leaf litter and dead wood anxiety 8 months pregnant buy emsam american express, into carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas, and ammonium and nitrates. Determinants of well-being: Inputs into the production of well-being, such as food, clothing, potable water, and access to knowledge and information. Domain (of scale): the combined range of characteristic scales for a given process in both space and time. Downscaling: the process of converting data or information at a course resolution to a finer resolution. Driver: Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem. Driver, direct: A driver that unequivocally influences ecosystem processes and can therefore be identified and measured to differing degrees of accuracy. Driver, endogenous: A driver whose magnitude can be influenced by the decision-maker. The endogenous or exogenous characteristic of a driver depends on the organizational scale. Driver, indirect: A driver that operates by altering the level or rate of change of one or more direct drivers. Ecological footprint: the area of productive land and aquatic ecosystems required to produce the resources used and to assimilate the wastes produced by a defined population at a specified material standard of living, wherever on Earth that land may be located. Ecological security: A condition of ecological safety that ensures access to a sustainable flow of provisioning, regulating, and cultural services needed by local communities to meet their basic capabilities. Ecosystem: A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and their nonliving environment interacting as a functional unit. Ecosystem approach: A strategy for the integrated management of land, water, and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. An ecosystem approach is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompass the essential structure, processes, functions, and interactions among organisms and their environment. Ecosystem assessment: A social process through which the findings of science concerning the causes of ecosystem change, their consequences for human well-being, and management and policy options are brought to bear on the needs of decision-makers. Ecosystem boundary: the spatial delimitation of an ecosystem, typically based on discontinuities in the distribution of organisms, the biophysical environment (soil types, drainage basins, depth in a water body), and spatial interactions (home ranges, migration patterns, fluxes of matter). Ecosystem function: An intrinsic ecosystem characteristic related to the set of conditions and processes whereby an ecosystem maintains its integrity (such as primary productivity, food chain, biogeochemical cycles). Ecosystem functions include such processes as decomposition, production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes of nutrients and energy. Glossary 211 Ecosystem health: A measure of the stability and sustainability of ecosystem functioning or ecosystem services that depends on an ecosystem being active and maintaining its organization, autonomy, and resilience over time. Ecosystem health contributes to human wellbeing through sustainable ecosystem services and conditions for human health. Ecosystem properties: the size, biodiversity, stability, degree of organization, internal exchanges of materials and energy among different pools, and other properties that characterize an ecosystem. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services such as nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth. An ecosystem is considered stable if it returns to its original state shortly after a perturbation (resilience), exhibits low temporal variability (constancy), or does not change dramatically in the face of a perturbation (resistance). Emergent property: A phenomenon that is not evident in the constituent parts of a system but that appears when they interact in the system as a whole. Existence value: the value that individuals place on knowing that a resource exists, even if they never use that resource (also sometimes known as conservation value or passive use value). Extent: the length or area over which observations were made or for which an assessment was made or over which a process is expressed. Externality: A consequence of an action that affects someone other than the agent undertaking that action and for which the agent is neither compensated nor penalized. Functional redundancy: A characteristic of species within an ecosystem in which certain species contribute in equivalent ways to an ecosystem function such that one species may substitute for another. Note that species that are redundant for one ecosystem function may not be redundant for others. Good social relations: Social cohesion, mutual respect, good gender and family relations, and the ability to help others and provide for children.
Each year more than ten million people in developing countries perish from infectious and parasitic diseases anxiety side effects purchase 5mg emsam with mastercard, most of which could be treated with existing medicines anxiety 5 things you see cheap emsam online amex. The vast majority of people in developing countries have to buy their own medicines anxiety in relationships buy generic emsam 5 mg line. For example anxiety symptoms jittery cheap emsam 5mg free shipping, in India over three-quarters of all spending on health services is out of pocket, of which 75 per cent is spent on medicines. Since 2001, for example, competition among Indian generics producers has driven down the cost of first-line antiretroviral medicines from $10,000 per patient per year to the current level of less than $80 per patient per year. Although the poorest countries have a grace period until 2016, most of them do not have manufacturing capacity and therefore have no means of producing generic medicines for their populations. But newer antiretroviral medicines, needed because they are more effective or to overcome toxicity or resistance to first-line medicines, are often ten times more expensive. In addition, developing countries face an increasing burden of non-communicable disease according to the World Health Organization, over 80 per cent of deaths from non-communicable diseases today occur in developing countries. New medicines to treat cancer, heart disease, and diabetes, patented aggressively by the industry, are priced out of reach of poor people. The pharmaceutical industry continues to aggressively seek to enforce patents and to charge high prices for medicines in low- and middle-income countries across Asia and Latin America, keeping medicines unaffordable for millions of poor people. Data exclusivity delayed generic competition for 79 per cent of medicines launched by 21 multinational pharmaceutical companies between 2002 and mid-2006 that otherwise would have been available in an inexpensive, generic form. Recent studies have shown similar, adverse public health impacts in Guatemala, a poor country with considerable public health challenges. European Union procedures adopted in 2008 require customs officials to enforce intellectual property rules, and at least 20 shipments of generic medicines en route from India and China to other developing countries have been seized in European ports. Examples of approaches based on access to knowledge include the open source movement that generated the Linux computer operating system and the user-generated free online encyclopedia, Wikipedia. These could include increasing public funding for collaborative efforts to develop new vaccines and medicines. The vaccine chosen was already under development by multinational drug companies for highly profitable sales in rich country markets, and the price ultimately negotiated was too high for many countries. The current system of global rules on knowledge is a severe and growing obstacle to development. The obstacles to changing it are not intellectual there are any number of good reform proposals but political. Those corporate leaders with a longer-term understanding of the need to tackle inequality and poverty must rein in their lobbyists, while politicians in both North and South must show leadership and curb the kinds of backdoor political influence that allows short-term corporate self-interest to stop knowledge flowing in the global economy. They also require effective states, able to stand up to pressures in trade negotiations or in their own courts in the interests of tackling poverty and inequality. It is good for the country to which they go; it helps break the equilibrium of poverty in the country from which they come. What is the perversity in the human soul that causes people to resist so obvious a good? No migrant-receiving state has ratified the 1990 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, which came into force in 2003 and aims to guarantee the rights of migrant workers; all the signatories are countries of origin, not destination. Throughout history, migration has been one of the most effective responses to poverty. Between 1846 and 1924, 48 million Europeans left the Old World and scattered around the globe. Passports did not assume their modern form until after World War I: not a single person was refused entry to Britain in the nineteenth century. Even allowing for differences in the cost of living, wage levels in high-income countries are approximately five times higher than those of low-income countries for similar jobs, and the gap is growing as inequality between countries rises inexorably. With the exception of the political barriers imposed by Northern governments, migration is getting easier. SouthSouth migration is now nearly as great as SouthNorth, largely between countries with common borders. Remittances to developing countries were estimated to reach $351 billion in 2011, three times the size of global aid and twelve times the 1990 level. Moreover, remittance flows are more reliable and less volatile than either foreign direct investment or aid. Remittances flowing to poor families across the developing world are typically spent on basic needs, including education and health care. They allow families and communities to cope better with the risks that afflict those living in poverty, whether at an individual level, when a family member falls ill or a crop fails, or at a community level diaspora communities are usually the first to react when a monsoon or an earthquake hits.
The variability of the effects among different species reminds us that animal studies have limitations for predicting the toxicity of cancer therapies in humans anxiety issues order discount emsam online. Apoptosis can be triggered by extracellular death signals or internal stimuli that act via an extrinsic and intrinsic pathway anxiety symptoms 4 weeks cheap emsam line, respectively anxiety 4 hereford bull order 5mg emsam. A tumor cell is "closer" to eliciting an apoptotic response than a normal cell if the apoptotic pathway were to be functional anxiety symptoms valium treats order emsam 5mg fast delivery. Alterations in the p53 and Bcl-2 related pathways play a major role during carcinogenesis. Mutations in apoptotic proteins enable cancer cells to both survive and become drug resistant. Apoptotic drugs aim to trigger apoptosis directly and do not require genotoxic activity. Critically discuss the experimental evidence that supports this link beginning with the following leads: White et al. This page intentionally left blank Chapter 8 Stem cells and differentiation Introduction As described in Chapter 1, the balance between cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis affects the net number of cells in the body and aberrant regulation of these processes can give rise to tumors. In this chapter we will describe the characteristics of cells at different degrees of differentiation and discuss the relationship of these characteristics to those of cancer cells. We will also investigate the molecular mechanisms that underlie the regulation of differentiation and examine specific mutations in differentiation pathways that can lead to cancer. Lastly, new cancer therapeutics designed to target different aspects of differentiation pathways are presented. Let us begin with an overview of the process of differentiation during development and in the adult. The processes involved in the development of a complete person from a formless fertilized egg are almost magical. Hundreds of specialized cell types must form from the fertilized egg and its unspecialized progeny cells called embryonic stem cells that reside in the inner cell mass. The process whereby cells become specialized to perform a particular function is called differentiation and relies on the regulation of a particular subset of genes that define a certain cell type. All cells in the body (except red blood cells and germ cells) contain a full complement of genes of the human genome but it is the expression of a subset of genes that makes one cell type different from another: for example, a brain cell expresses different genes from a liver cell. Lineage-specific transcription factors responsible for turning on cell type-specific genes, as well as epigenetic mechanisms, are important in this process. During our development, different cell types are organized into varying tissues by pattern formation; although the same cell types are present in an arm and a leg, the morphology, or form of the structures, differs. In addition to embryonic stem cells, there are also stem cells in the adult that are involved in the regeneration of tissues during the lifetime of the individual. Some stem cells are continually active to replace cells as they mature and die off. For example, adult hematopoietic stem cells, stem cells that give rise to the blood, self-renew and differentiate to sustain the different types of blood cells over the lifetime of the individual. It has recently been demonstrated that hematopoietic stem cells show differentiation plasticity-that is they can give rise to non-hematopoietic cells (see Pause and Think). Recent cloning experiments have demonstrated that a nucleus from a differentiated cell can be reprogrammed to direct the development of another individual. The cloning of Dolly the sheep from a mammary cell nucleus is a notable demonstration that the pattern of gene expression of a differentiated cell is not permanently fixed. The process of differentiation is fueled by a source of stem cells in both the embryo and the adult. Stem cells self-renew while at the same time giving rise to cells that are more committed to differentiate along a particular cell lineage. A block in differentiation results in a higher net number of cells and therefore is a mechanism for tumor formation in some cancers, such as leukemia. Also, even though all the cells from a particular tumor are of clonal origin (see Section 1. Restated in genetics terminology, a tumor is a mass of genotypically and phenotypically heterogeneous cells despite all the cells being of clonal origin. This heterogeneity may reflect aberrant differentiation and development in addition to accumulation of different mutations. The most malignant tumors often show the smallest number of differentiation markers.
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